Sources/Reference for Contributing Factors to the Achievement Gap

Individual

  1. Stereotyping
    1. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African-Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 797-811.
    2. Steele, C. (1997). A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance. American Psychologist 52 (6): 613-629.
    3. Schmader, T., Johns, M, & Forbes, C. (2008). An Integrated Process Model of Stereotype Threat Effects on Performance. Psychological Review 115 (2): 336-356.
  2. Academic Attitude
    1. Fryer, R. G. (2006). Acting White. Education Next. Retrieved from http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/fryer/files/aw_ednext.pdf.
    2. Ferguson, R. (2001). A Diagnostic Analysis of Black-White GPA Disparities in Shaker Heights, Ohio. Brookings Papers on Education Policy, pp. 347-414.
    3. Ainsworth-Darnell, J. W., & Downey, D. B. (1998). Assessing the Oppositional Culture Explanation for Racial/Ethnic Differences in School Performance. American Sociological Review 63 (4): 536-553.
    4. Ogbu, J., & Fordham, S. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping with the "Burden of 'Acting White.'" The Urban Review, 18, 176-206.
    5. Ogbu, J. U. (1978). Minority Education and Caste. New York: Academic Press.
    6. Ogbu, J. U. (1991). Low Performance as an Adaptation: The Case of Blacks in Stockton, California. Pp. 249-85 in Minority Status and Schooling, edited by Gibson, M. A. & Ogbu, J. U. New York: Grand Publishing.
    7. Mickelson, R. A. (1990). The Attitude Achievement Paradox Among Black Adolescents. Sociology of Education, 63(1), 44-61.
  3. Goal-setting
    1. Mickelson, R. A. (1990). The Attitude Achievement Paradox Among Black Adolescents. Sociology of Education, 63 (1), 44-61.
  4. Peer group influence
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2010). Replicating Effective Programs (REP) Plus, Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/prev_prog/rep/.
    2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001). Compendium of HIV Prevention Interventions with Evidence of Effectiveness, Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/reports/hiv_compendium/index.htm.
    3. Kelly, J. A. (2004). Popular opinion leaders and HIV prevention peer education: Resolving discrepant findings, and implications for the development of effective community programs, in AIDSCare 16 (2), pp. 139-150. Paris: IIEP.
    4. Also see Harvard Achievement Gap Initiative’s Conspiracy to Succeed: http://www.agi.harvard.edu/projects/Youth.php.
    5. A substantial body of research has shown that student norms and attitudes have influence on the quality and character of schools.
      1. Steinberg, L. (1996). Beyond the Classroom. New York: Simon and Schuster.
      2. Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive Schooling. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Home and Family Background

  1. Health and environmental factors
    1. Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and Schools. Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC. Teachers College, Columbia University: New York, NY.
    2. Harry et al., (2000). “Of Rocks and Soft Places: Using Qualitative Methods to Investigate the Processes That Result in Disproportionality.” Paper presented at the Minority Issues in Special Education Conference, Harvard University.
    3. Students in poverty often lack adequate nutrition or medical care, and suffer from the negative effects of low birth weight, lead poisoning, and hunger, which impair their ability to succeed in school.
      1. Neisser, U. et al. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns. The American Psychologist 51, 77-101
      2. Karp, R. et al. (1992). Growth and Academic Achievement in Inner-City Kindergarten Schools. Clinical Pediatrics (Philadelphia), 31, 336-340.
      3. Meyers, A.F. et al. (1989). School Breakfast and School Performance. The American Journal of Diseases of Children, 143, 1237.
    4. Hack, M. Klein, N. K., & Taylor, H.G. (1995). Long-Term Developmental Outcomes of Low Birth Weight Infants. The Future of Children: Low Birthweight. 5 (10): 19-34, Center for the Future of Children, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Los Altos, CA.
    5. Hediger, M. L., Overpeck, M.D., Ruan, W.J., & Troendle, J. F. (2002). Birthweight and Gestational Age: Effects on Motor and Social Development. Pediatric and Prenatal Epidemiology 16:33-46.
    6. U.S. General Accounting Office (1999). Lead Poisoning: Federal Health Care Programs Are Not Effectively Reaching At-Risk Children (GAO/HEHS 99-18), Washington, DC.
    7. R.L. Caufield, et al. (2003). Intellectual Impairment in Children with Blood Concentrations 10 ug per Deciliter. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348 (16): 1517-1526.
  2. Parental involvement in school
    1. Jeynes, W. H. (2005). Parental involvement and student achievement: A meta-analysis (Family Involvement Research Digest). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project. Retrieved from http://www.gse.harvard.edu/hfrp/publications_resources/publications_series/family_involvement_research_digests/parental_involvement_and_student_achievement_a_meta_analysis.
    2. Houtenville, A., Conway, K. (2008). Parental Effort, School Resources and Student Achievement. Journal of Human Resources, XLIII(2), 437-53.
    3. Ames, C., Khoju, M., & Watkins, T. (1993). Parent involvement: The relationship between school to home communication and parents' perceptions and beliefs. Boston, MA: Center on Families, Communities, Schools & Children's Learning.
    4. Zill, N., and Nord, C.W. (1994). Running in Place: How American Families Are Faring in a Changing Economy and an Individualistic Society. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends, Inc.
    5. Henderson, A. & Beria, N. (1994). A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement. Washington, DC: National Committee for Citizens in Education.
    6. Epstein, J. L. & Salinas, K. C. (2004). Partnering with families and communities. Educational Leadership, 61(8), 12-18.
    7. Sanders, M. (1997). Building Effective School-Family-Community Partnerships in a Large Urban School District. Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk, U.S. Department of Education.
    8. Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
    9. Dauber, S.L., & Epstein, J (1993). Parents' attitudes and practices of involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. In N. F. Chavkin, Families and schools in a pluralistic society (pp. 53-71). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
    10. Epstein, J. (1991). School and family connections: Theory, research, and implications for integrating societies of education and family. In D.G. Unger and M.B. Sussman (eds.), Families in community settings: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 289-305). New York: Hayworth Press.
    11. Grolnick, W. S., & Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994). Parent involvement in children’s schooling: A multidimensional conceptualization and motivational model. Child Development 64: 237-252.
    12. Grolnick, W. S., et al. (1997). Predictors of parent involvement in children’s schooling. Journal of Educational Psychology 89, 538-548.
    13. Nord, C. W. and West, J. (2001). Fathers’ and mothers’ involvement in their children’s schools by family type and resident status. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/2001032.pdf.
    14. Lynn, L. (1994). Building parent involvement. Brief to Principals, No. 8. Madison, WI: Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools.
    15. Quality Counts. (2003). Education Week 22 (17).
    16. The Condition of Education (2001) National Center for Education Statistics, Education Week.
    17. McLanahan, S. & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing Up with a Single Parent. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA.
  3. Parental education level
    1. Cameron, L. (2006). Parent education levels spell achievement trouble for Indiana. Newscenter.
    2. Lee, J. & Bowen, N. (2006). Parent involvement, cultural capital, and the achievement gap among elementary school children. American Educational Research Journal 43, 193-218.
  4. Books, reading, and language in the home
    1. Lareau, A. (2002). Unequal Childhoods. University of California Press: Berkeley, CA.
    2. Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and Schools. Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC. Teachers College, Columbia University: New York, NY.
    3. Mikulecky, L. (1996). School-to-work transitions for middle school students. In Lapp, D. and Flood, J (eds.) Spotlight on the Middle School. New York: Macmillan/McGraw Hill.
  5. Summer and after-school learning
    1. Phillips, M. (2000). Understanding Ethnic Differences in Academic achievement: Empirical Lessons from National Data. pp. 103-32 in Analytical Issues in the Assessment of Student Achievement, edited by U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
    2. Allington, R.L., & McGill-Franzen, A. (2003). The impact of summer reading setback on the reading achievement gap. Phi Delta Kappan, 85, 68–75.
    3. Entiwsle, D.R, Alexander, K. L., & Olson L. S. (1997). Children, Schools and Inequality. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
    4. Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and Schools. Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC. Teachers College, Columbia University: New York, NY.
    5. Society for Research in Child Development (2010). Benefits of preschool vary by family income. Science Daily. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101116081424.htm.
    6. Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2007). Summer learning and its implications: Insights from the Beginning School Study. New Directions for Youth Development 114, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
    7. Ritter, G. W., et al. (2009).The Effectiveness of Volunteer Tutoring Programs for Elementary and Middle School Students: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 79 (1): 3-38.
    8. Cooper, H. (2003). Summer Learning Loss: The Problem and Some Solutions. Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. University of Illinois.
  6. Neighborhood effects
    1. Ogbu, J. (2003). Black Students in an Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erllbaum.
    2. Evans. G. W. (2006). Child development and the physical environment. Annual Review of Psychology 57, 423-451.
    3. Evans, G.W. & Hygge, S. (2007). Noise and performance in children and adults. In L. Luxon & D. Prasher (eds.) Noise and its effects (pp. 549-566). London: Wiley.
    4. Evans, G. W. & Lepore, S. J. (1993). Nonauditory effect of noise on children: A critical review. Children’s Environments, 10(1), 31-51.
  7. Student mobility
    1. United States General Accounting Office (1994). Elementary School Children: Many Change Schools Frequently, Harming Their Education.
    2. Hartman, C. (2002). High Classroom Turnover: How Children Get Left Behind in Rights at Risk: Equality in a Age of Terrorism, Piche, D. M., Taylor, W. L., & Reed, R. A. (eds.), Citizens Commission on Civil Rights, p. 229.
    3. Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and Schools. Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC. Teachers College, Columbia University: New York, NY.
  8. Cultural and social capital or parents/family
    1. Dumais, S. (2002). Cultural Capital, Gender, and School Success: The Role of Habitus. Sociology of Education 75 (1): 44-68.
    2. Bordieu, P. (1983). The Forms of Capital. Originally published as "Ökonomisches Kapital, kulturelles Kapital, soziales Kapital" in Soziale Ungleichheiten (Soziale Welt, Sonderheft 2), edited by Reinhard Kreckel. Goettingen: Otto Schartz & Co. pp. 183–98.
    3. Lareau, A. (2002). Unequal Childhoods. University of California Press: Berkeley, CA.
    4. Jencks, C. & Phillips, M. (1998). The Black-White Test Score Gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
    5. Social Capital: benefits individuals derive from their association with and participation within social networks and organizations.
      1. Coleman, J. (1988). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology 94, pp. 95-120.
      2. Lareau, A. (1996). “Assessing parent-involvement in schooling.” In A. Booth and J.F. Dunn (Eds.), Family-School Links: How Do They Affect Educational Outcomes (pp. 57-64). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
      3. Rouse, C. & Barrow, L. (2006). U.S. Elementary and Secondary Schools: Equalizing Opportunity or Replicating the Status Quo? The Future of Children, 16.2, Opportunity in America, 99-123.
      4. Noguera, P. A., Bliss, M. (2001). School violence reduction initiative: Youth Together Project. Final year Report. Berkeley, CA: Center on Diversity & Urban School Reform, University of California., Berkeley, December 1998.
      5. Ferguson, A. (1995). “Boys Will Be Boys: Defiant Acts and the Social Construction of Black Masculinity.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
      6. Fine, M. (1993). “(Ap)parent Involvement: Reflections on Parents, Power, and Urban Schools.” Teachers College Record, 94(4).
      7. Sampson, R. (1998). “What community supplies.” In R. Ferguson and W. Dickens (Eds.), Urban Problems and Community Development. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.

Teacher

  1. Effective Teaching
    1. Hanushek, E.A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2010). "Constrained Job Matching: Does Teacher Job Search Harm Disadvantaged Urban Schools?" CALDER Working Paper 42. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
    2. Hanushek, E.A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2010). "Using Value-Added Measures of Teacher Quality ." CALDER Brief 9. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
    3. c. Ferguson, R. (2002). Addressing Racial Disparities in High-Achieving Suburban Schools. NCREL Policy Issues 13.
    4. http://www.ncrel.org/policy/pubs/html/pivol13/dec2002b.htm.
    5. Ferguson, R. (2000). A diagnostic analysis of Black-White GPA disparities in Shaker Heights, Ohio. Washington. DC: Brookings Institution.
  2. Teaching experience
    1. Clotfeter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., Vigdor, J. L. (2007). How and Why Do Teacher Credentials Matter for Student Achievement? CALDER Working paper 2. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
    2. Ladd, H.F. (2008). Value-Added Modeling of Teacher Credentials: Policy Implications. Paper presented at the second annual CALDER research conference, Washing, DC: The Urban Institute.
    3. Xu, Z., Hannaway, J, & Taylor, C. (2009). Making a Difference? The Effects of Teach for America in High School. CALDER working Paper 17. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
    4. Mayer, D. P., Mullins, J. E., & Moore, M. T. (2002). Monitoring School Quality: An Indicators Report, National Center for Education Statistics, John Ralph, Project Officer, NCES 2001-030, 5-6.
    5. Mayer, D. P., Mullins, J. E., & Moore, M. T. (2002). Monitoring School Quality: An Indicators Report, National Center for Education Statistics, John Ralph, Project Officer, NCES 2001-030, 13-14.
    6. Murnane, R. J. & Phillips, B. R. (1981). Learning by Doing: Vintage and Selection: Three Pieces of the Puzzle Relating Teaching Experience and Teaching Performance. Economics of Education Review, 1 (4): 453-465.
    7. Hammond, L. D. (2000). Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of State Policy Evidence. Educational Policy Analysis Archives 8 (1). Retrieved from http://olam.ed.asu.edu/epaa/v8n.1
  3. Expectations
    1. Johnson, R. (2002). Using Data to Close the Achievement Gap. Corwin Press, Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA.
    2. Rosenthal, R. & Jacobson L. (1992). Pygmalion in the classroom. Expanded edition. New York: Irvington.
    3. Noguera, P. A. (2008). The Trouble with Black Boys, Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.
  4. Culturally responsive instruction
    1. Duncan-Andrade, J. (2007). Gangstas, Wankstas, and Ridas: defining, developing and supporting effective teachers in urban schools. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 20:6, 617-638.

 

School

  1. Rigorous curriculum
    1. Johnson, R. (2002). Using Data to Close the Achievement Gap. Corwin Press, Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA.
    2. Resnick, L.B. (ed.) (2004). Essential Information for Education Policy. American Educational Research Association 2 (3): 1-3.
    3. Chubb, J.E. Chubb & Moe, T. M. (1990). Politics, Markets, and America’s Schools, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
  2. School Resources
    1. Johnson, R. (2002). Using Data to Close the Achievement Gap. Corwin Press, Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA.
    2. National Governors Association for Best Practices. (2005). An Action Agenda for Improving America’s High Schools. Washington, DC: National Governor’s Association.
    3. Resnick, L.B. (ed.) (2004). Essential Information for Education Policy. American Educational Research Association 2 (3): 1-3.
    4. Rouse, C. & Barrow, L. (2006). U.S. Elementary and Secondary Schools: Equalizing Opportunity or Replicating the Status Quo? The Future of Children, 16.2, Opportunity in America, 99-123.
    5. Smerdon, B. et al. (2000). Teachers’ Tools for the 21st Century: A Report on Teachers’ Use of Technology. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES 2000-102), pp. 26, 42, and 44.
  3. Supportive administration
    1. Ladd, H.F. (2008). Value-Added Modeling of Teacher Credentials: Policy Implications. Paper presented at the second annual CALDER research conference. Washington, DC, Nov. 21.
    2. Beteille, T., Kalogrides, D., & Loeb S. (2009). Effective Schools: Managing the Recruitment, Development, and Retention of High-Quality Teachers. CALDER Working Paper 37. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
  4. Academic tracking
    1. Lucas, S. R. (2001). Effectively Maintained Inequality: Education Transitions, Track Mobility, and Social Background Effects. The American Journal of Sociology, 106 (6): 1642-1690.
    2. b. Burris, C.C., & Wellner, K.G. (2005). Closing the Achievement Gap by Detracking. Phi Delta Kappan. 86 (8), 594-598.
    3. Beteille, T., Kalogrides, D., & Loeb S. (2009). Effective Schools: Managing the Recruitment, Development, and Retention of High-Quality Teachers. CALDER Working Paper 37. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
    4. Johnson, R. (2002). Using Data to Close the Achievement Gap. Corwin Press, Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA.
    5. Ladd, H. F. (2009). Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Working Conditions: How Predictive of Policy-Relevant Outcomes? CALDER Working paper 33. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
    6. Hochschild, J. L. (2003). Social Class in Public Schools. Journal of Social Issues. 59 (4): 821-840.
  5. School climate
    1. Center for Social and Emotional Education. (2007). School climate research summary. New York: Author. Available: http://nscc.csee.net/effective/school_climate_research_summary.pdf
    2. Cohen, J., McCabe, L., Michelli, N. M., & Pickeral, T. (in press). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers College Record.
    3. Zins, J., Weissberg, R. W., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (2004). Building school success on social emotional learning: What does the research say? New York: Teachers College Press.
    4. National School Climate Council. (2007). The School Climate Challenge: Narrowing the gap between school climate research and school climate policy, practice guidelines and teacher education policy. New York: Center for Social and Emotional Education; & Denver, CO: National Center for Learning and Citizenship, Education Commission of the States. Available: http://csee.net/climate/aboutcsee/school_climate_challenge.pdf
    5. Cohen, J., Pickeral, T., & McCloskey, M. (2008). The Challenge of Assessing School Climate. Educational Leadership. 66 (4).
    6. Noguera, P. A. (2008). The Trouble with Black Boys, Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.
    7. School Safety- a positive disciplinary climate is directly linked to high achievement.
      1. Barton, P., et al. (1998). Order in the Classroom: Violence, Discipline and Student Achievement. Policy Information Center, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NK.
      2. DeVoe, J. F., et al. (2002). Indicators of School Crime and Safety. NCJ 196753, Washington, DC: United States Department of Education and United States Department of Justice.
      3. Chandler, K.A., et al. (1998). Student Reports of School Crime: 1989 and 1995. NCJ 169607, Washington, DC: United States Department of Education and United States Department of Justice.
  6. Class size
    1. Rouse, C. & Barrow, L. (2006). U.S. Elementary and Secondary Schools: Equalizing Opportunity or Replicating the Status Quo? The Future of Children, 16.2, Opportunity in America, 99-123.
    2. Glass, G. and Smith, M. (1978). Meta-Analysis of Research on the Relationship of Class Size and Achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 1 (1): 2-16.
    3. Finn, J. D. (1998). Class Size and Student Risk: What is Known? What is Next?, a paper commissioned by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. (http:///www.ed.gov/pubs/classsize/title:html.).
    4. Mishel, L. & Rothstein, R. (eds). (2002). The Class Size Debate, The Economic Policy Institute, Washington, D.C.
  7. Extra-curricular activities
    1. Steele, C. (1992). Race and the Schooling of Black Americans. Atlantic Monthly.

Larger Systemic and Infrastructure Factors

  1. Ogbu, J.U. (1994). Racial stratification and education in the United States: Why inequality persists. Teachers College Record, 96: 264-298.
  2. Dottner, A. M., McHale, S. M., and Crouter A. C. (2009). Sociocultural Factors and School Engagement Among African American Youth: The Roles of Racial Discrimination, Racial Socialization, and Ethnic Identity. Applied Developmental Science 13 (2): 61-73.
  3. Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). Journal of Personality 71 (6): 1197-1232.
  4. No Child Left Behind. Retrieved from: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html.
Related: 
Smart. Youth Solutions to the Achievement Gap
Publication year: 
2011
Authors: 
Irina Vaynerman